2017 Edition

Background

For centuries China stood as a leading civilization, outpacing the rest of the world in the arts and sciences, but in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the country was beset by civil unrest, major famines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World War II, the Communist Party of China under MAO Zedong established an autocratic socialist system that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people. After 1978, MAO's successor DENG Xiaoping and other leaders focused on market-oriented economic development and by 2000 output had quadrupled. For much of the population, living standards have improved dramatically but political controls remain tight. Since the early 1990s, China has increased its global outreach and participation in international organizations.

Area

9,596,960 sq km 9,326,410 sq km 270,550 sq km

land

9,326,410 sq km

total

9,596,960 sq km

water

270,550 sq km

Area - comparative

slightly smaller than the US

Climate

extremely diverse; tropical in south to subarctic in north

Coastline

14,500 km

Elevation

1,840 m lowest point: Turpan Pendi -154 m highest point: Mount Everest 8,848 m (highest peak in Asia and highest point on earth above sea level)

elevation extremes

lowest point: Turpan Pendi -154 m

highest point

Mount Everest 8,848 m (highest peak in Asia and highest point on earth above sea level)

mean elevation

1,840 m

Environment - current issues

air pollution (greenhouse gases, sulfur dioxide particulates) from reliance on coal produces acid rain; China is the world's largest single emitter of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels; water shortages, particularly in the north; water pollution from untreated wastes; coastal destruction due to land reclamation, industrial development, and aquaculture; deforestation and habitat destruction; poor land management leads to soil erosion, landslides, floods, droughts, dust storms and desertification; trade in endangered species

Environment - international agreements

Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling none of the selected agreements

party to

Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling

signed, but not ratified

none of the selected agreements

Geographic coordinates

35 00 N, 105 00 E

Geography - note

world's fourth largest country (after Russia, Canada, and US) and largest country situated entirely in Asia; Mount Everest on the border with Nepal is the world's tallest peak above sea level

Irrigated land

690,070 sq km (2012)

Land boundaries

22,457 km Afghanistan 91 km, Bhutan 477 km, Burma 2,129 km, India 2,659 km, Kazakhstan 1,765 km, North Korea 1,352 km, Kyrgyzstan 1,063 km, Laos 475 km, Mongolia 4,630 km, Nepal 1,389 km, Pakistan 438 km, Russia (northeast) 4,133 km, Russia (northwest) 46 km, Tajikistan 477 km, Vietnam 1,297 km Hong Kong 33 km, Macau 3 km

border countries (14)

Afghanistan 91 km, Bhutan 477 km, Burma 2,129 km, India 2,659 km, Kazakhstan 1,765 km, North Korea 1,352 km, Kyrgyzstan 1,063 km, Laos 475 km, Mongolia 4,630 km, Nepal 1,389 km, Pakistan 438 km, Russia (northeast) 4,133 km, Russia (northwest) 46 km, Tajikistan 477 km, Vietnam 1,297 km

regional border(s) (2)

Hong Kong 33 km, Macau 3 km

total

22,457 km

Land use

54.7% arable land 11.3%; permanent crops 1.6%; permanent pasture 41.8% 22.3% 23% (2011 est.)

agricultural land

54.7%

forest

22.3%

other

23% (2011 est.)

Location

Eastern Asia, bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea and Vietnam

Map references

Asia

Maritime claims

12 nm 24 nm 200 nm 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin

contiguous zone

24 nm

continental shelf

200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin

exclusive economic zone

200 nm

territorial sea

12 nm

Natural hazards

frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts; land subsidence China contains some historically active volcanoes including Changbaishan (also known as Baitoushan, Baegdu, or P'aektu-san), Hainan Dao, and Kunlun although most have been relatively inactive in recent centuries

volcanism

China contains some historically active volcanoes including Changbaishan (also known as Baitoushan, Baegdu, or P'aektu-san), Hainan Dao, and Kunlun although most have been relatively inactive in recent centuries

Natural resources

coal, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, mercury, tin, tungsten, antimony, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, magnetite, aluminum, lead, zinc, rare earth elements, uranium, hydropower potential (world's largest), arable land

Population - distribution

overwhelming majority of the population is found in the eastern half of the country; the west, with its vast mountainous and desert areas, remains sparsely populated; though ranked first in the world in total population, overall density is less than that of many other countries in Asia and Europe; high population density is found along the Yangtze and Yellow River valleys, the Xi Jiang River delta, the Sichuan Basin (around Chengdu), in and around Beijing, and the industrial area around Shenyang

Terrain

mostly mountains, high plateaus, deserts in west; plains, deltas, and hills in east

Age structure

17.15% (male 127,484,177/female 109,113,241) 12.78% (male 94,215,607/female 82,050,623) 48.51% (male 341,466,438/female 327,661,460) 10.75% (male 74,771,050/female 73,441,177) 10.81% (male 71,103,029/female 77,995,969) (2017 est.)

0-14 years

17.15% (male 127,484,177/female 109,113,241)

15-24 years

12.78% (male 94,215,607/female 82,050,623)

25-54 years

48.51% (male 341,466,438/female 327,661,460)

55-64 years

10.75% (male 74,771,050/female 73,441,177)

65 years and over

10.81% (male 71,103,029/female 77,995,969) (2017 est.)

Birth rate

12.3 births/1,000 population (2017 est.)

Children under the age of 5 years underweight

3.4% (2010)

Death rate

7.8 deaths/1,000 population (2017 est.)

Dependency ratios

37.7 24.3 13.3 7.5 data do not include Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan (2015 est.)

elderly dependency ratio

13.3

potential support ratio

7.5

total dependency ratio

37.7

youth dependency ratio

24.3

Drinking water source

urban: 97.5% of population rural: 93% of population total: 95.5% of population urban: 2.5% of population rural: 7% of population total: 4.5% of population (2015 est.)

rural

7% of population

total

4.5% of population (2015 est.)

urban

2.5% of population

Education expenditures

NA

Ethnic groups

Han Chinese 91.6%, Zhuang 1.3%, other (includes Hui, Manchu, Uighur, Miao, Yi, Tujia, Tibetan, Mongol, Dong, Buyei, Yao, Bai, Korean, Hani, Li, Kazakh, Dai, and other nationalities) 7.1% the Chinese Government officially recognizes 56 ethnic groups (2010 est.)

note

the Chinese Government officially recognizes 56 ethnic groups (2010 est.)

Health expenditures

5.5% of GDP (2014)

HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate

NA

HIV/AIDS - deaths

NA

HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS

NA

Hospital bed density

3.8 beds/1,000 population (2011)

Infant mortality rate

12 deaths/1,000 live births 12.3 deaths/1,000 live births 11.7 deaths/1,000 live births (2017 est.)

female

11.7 deaths/1,000 live births (2017 est.)

male

12.3 deaths/1,000 live births

total

12 deaths/1,000 live births

Languages

Standard Chinese or Mandarin (official; Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect), Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghainese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese), Xiang, Gan, Hakka dialects, minority languages (see Ethnic groups entry) Zhuang is official in Guangxi Zhuang, Yue is official in Guangdong, Mongolian is official in Nei Mongol, Uighur is official in Xinjiang Uygur, Kyrgyz is official in Xinjiang Uygur, and Tibetan is official in Xizang (Tibet)

note

Zhuang is official in Guangxi Zhuang, Yue is official in Guangdong, Mongolian is official in Nei Mongol, Uighur is official in Xinjiang Uygur, Kyrgyz is official in Xinjiang Uygur, and Tibetan is official in Xizang (Tibet)

Life expectancy at birth

75.7 years 73.6 years 78 years (2017 est.)

female

78 years (2017 est.)

male

73.6 years

total population

75.7 years

Literacy

age 15 and over can read and write 96.4% 98.2% 94.5% (2015 est.)

definition

age 15 and over can read and write

female

94.5% (2015 est.)

male

98.2%

total population

96.4%

Major infectious diseases

intermediate bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever Japanese encephalitis hantaviral hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) (2016)

degree of risk

intermediate

food or waterborne diseases

bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever

soil contact disease

hantaviral hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) (2016)

vectorborne disease

Japanese encephalitis

Major urban areas - population

Shanghai 23.741 million; BEIJING (capital) 20.384 million; Chongqing 13.332 million; Guangdong 12.458 million; Tianjin 11.21 million; Shenzhen 10.749 million (2015)

Maternal mortality ratio

27 deaths/100,000 live births (2015 est.)

Median age

37.4 years 36.5 years 38.4 years (2017 est.)

female

38.4 years (2017 est.)

male

36.5 years

total

37.4 years

Nationality

Chinese (singular and plural) Chinese

adjective

Chinese

noun

Chinese (singular and plural)

Net migration rate

-0.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)

Obesity - adult prevalence rate

6.2% (2016)

People - note

in October 2015, the Chinese Government announced that it would change its rules to allow all couples to have two children, loosening a 1979 mandate that restricted many couples to one child; the new policy was implemented on 1 January 2016 to address China’s rapidly aging population and economic needs

Physicians density

1.49 physicians/1,000 population (2011)

Population

1,379,302,771 (July 2017 est.)

Population distribution

overwhelming majority of the population is found in the eastern half of the country; the west, with its vast mountainous and desert areas, remains sparsely populated; though ranked first in the world in total population, overall density is less than that of many other countries in Asia and Europe; high population density is found along the Yangtze and Yellow River valleys, the Xi Jiang River delta, the Sichuan Basin (around Chengdu), in and around Beijing, and the industrial area around Shenyang

Population growth rate

0.41% (2017 est.)

Religions

Buddhist 18.2%, Christian 5.1%, Muslim 1.8%, folk religion 21.9%, Hindu < 0.1%, Jewish < 0.1%, other 0.7% (includes Daoist (Taoist)), unaffiliated 52.2% officially atheist (2010 est.)

note

officially atheist (2010 est.)

Sanitation facility access

urban: 86.6% of population rural: 63.7% of population total: 76.5% of population urban: 13.4% of population rural: 36.3% of population total: 23.5% of population (2015 est.)

rural

36.3% of population

total

23.5% of population (2015 est.)

urban

13.4% of population

School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)

14 years 14 years 14 years (2015)

female

14 years (2015)

male

14 years

total

14 years

Sex ratio

1.15 male(s)/female 1.17 male(s)/female 1.14 male(s)/female 1.04 male(s)/female 1.02 male(s)/female 0.92 male(s)/female 1.06 male(s)/female (2016 est.)

0-14 years

1.17 male(s)/female

15-24 years

1.14 male(s)/female

25-54 years

1.04 male(s)/female

55-64 years

1.02 male(s)/female

65 years and over

0.92 male(s)/female

at birth

1.15 male(s)/female

total population

1.06 male(s)/female (2016 est.)

Total fertility rate

1.6 children born/woman (2017 est.)

Urbanization

57.9% of total population (2017) 2.3% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.) data do not include Hong Kong and Macau

note

data do not include Hong Kong and Macau

rate of urbanization

2.3% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.)

urban population

57.9% of total population (2017)

Administrative divisions

23 provinces (sheng, singular and plural), 5 autonomous regions (zizhiqu, singular and plural), and 4 municipalities (shi, singular and plural) Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang; (see note on Taiwan) Guangxi, Nei Mongol (Inner Mongolia), Ningxia, Xinjiang Uygur, Xizang (Tibet) Beijing, Chongqing, Shanghai, Tianjin China considers Taiwan its 23rd province; see separate entries for the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau

autonomous regions

Guangxi, Nei Mongol (Inner Mongolia), Ningxia, Xinjiang Uygur, Xizang (Tibet)

municipalities

Beijing, Chongqing, Shanghai, Tianjin

note

China considers Taiwan its 23rd province; see separate entries for the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau

provinces

Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang; (see note on Taiwan)

Capital

Beijing 39 55 N, 116 23 E UTC+8 (13 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time) despite its size, all of China falls within one time zone; many people in Xinjiang Province observe an unofficial "Xinjiang time zone" of UTC+6, two hours behind Beijing

geographic coordinates

39 55 N, 116 23 E

name

Beijing

note

despite its size, all of China falls within one time zone; many people in Xinjiang Province observe an unofficial "Xinjiang time zone" of UTC+6, two hours behind Beijing

time difference

UTC+8 (13 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)

Citizenship

no least one parent must be a citizen of China no while naturalization is theoretically possible, in practical terms it is extremely difficult; residency is required but not specified

citizenship by birth

no

citizenship by descent only

least one parent must be a citizen of China

dual citizenship recognized

no

residency requirement for naturalization

while naturalization is theoretically possible, in practical terms it is extremely difficult; residency is required but not specified

Constitution

several previous; latest promulgated 4 December 1982; amended several times, last in 2004 (2016)

Country name

People's Republic of China China Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Zhongguo PRC English name derives from the Qin (Chin) rulers of the 3rd century B.C., who comprised the first imperial dynasty of ancient China; the Chinese name Zhongguo translates as "Central Nation"

abbreviation

PRC

conventional long form

People's Republic of China

conventional short form

China

etymology

English name derives from the Qin (Chin) rulers of the 3rd century B.C., who comprised the first imperial dynasty of ancient China; the Chinese name Zhongguo translates as "Central Nation"

local long form

Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo

local short form

Zhongguo

Diplomatic representation from the US

Ambassador Terry BRANSTAD (since 12 July 2017)Charge d"Affaires Johnathan FRITZ (acting)(since 5 June 2017) 55 An Jia Lou Lu, 100600 Beijing PSC 461, Box 50, FPO AP 96521-0002 [86] (10) 8531-3000 [86] (10) 8531-3300 Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Shenyang, Wuhan

chief of mission

Ambassador Terry BRANSTAD (since 12 July 2017)Charge d"Affaires Johnathan FRITZ (acting)(since 5 June 2017)

consulate(s) general

Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Shenyang, Wuhan

embassy

55 An Jia Lou Lu, 100600 Beijing

FAX

[86] (10) 8531-3300

mailing address

PSC 461, Box 50, FPO AP 96521-0002

telephone

[86] (10) 8531-3000

Diplomatic representation in the US

Ambassador CUI Tiankai (since 3 April 2013) 3505 International Place NW, Washington, DC 20008 [1] (202) 495-2266 [1] (202) 495-2138 Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, San Francisco

chancery

3505 International Place NW, Washington, DC 20008

chief of mission

Ambassador CUI Tiankai (since 3 April 2013)

consulate(s) general

Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, San Francisco

FAX

[1] (202) 495-2138

telephone

[1] (202) 495-2266

Executive branch

President XI Jinping (since 14 March 2013); Vice President LI Yuanchao (since 14 March 2013) Premier LI Keqiang (since 16 March 2013); Executive Vice Premiers ZHANG Gaoli (since 16 March 2013), LIU Yandong (since 16 March 2013), MA Kai (since 16 March 2013), WANG Yang (since 16 March 2013) State Council appointed by National People's Congress president and vice president indirectly elected by National People's Congress for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 5-17 March 2013 (next to be held in March 2018); premier nominated by president, confirmed by National People's Congress XI Jinping elected president; National People's Congress vote - 2,952 ; LI Yuanchao elected vice president with 2,940 votes

cabinet

State Council appointed by National People's Congress

chief of state

President XI Jinping (since 14 March 2013); Vice President LI Yuanchao (since 14 March 2013)

election results

XI Jinping elected president; National People's Congress vote - 2,952 ; LI Yuanchao elected vice president with 2,940 votes

elections/appointments

president and vice president indirectly elected by National People's Congress for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 5-17 March 2013 (next to be held in March 2018); premier nominated by president, confirmed by National People's Congress

head of government

Premier LI Keqiang (since 16 March 2013); Executive Vice Premiers ZHANG Gaoli (since 16 March 2013), LIU Yandong (since 16 March 2013), MA Kai (since 16 March 2013), WANG Yang (since 16 March 2013)

Flag description

red with a large yellow five-pointed star and four smaller yellow five-pointed stars (arranged in a vertical arc toward the middle of the flag) in the upper hoist-side corner; the color red represents revolution, while the stars symbolize the four social classes - the working class, the peasantry, the urban petty bourgeoisie, and the national bourgeoisie (capitalists) - united under the Communist Party of China

Government type

communist state

Independence

1 October 1949 (People's Republic of China established); notable earlier dates: 221 B.C. (unification under the Qin Dynasty); 1 January 1912 (Qing Dynasty replaced by the Republic of China)

1 October 1949 (People's Republic of China established); notable earlier dates

221 B.C. (unification under the Qin Dynasty); 1 January 1912 (Qing Dynasty replaced by the Republic of China)

International law organization participation

has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; non-party state to the ICCt

International organization participation

ADB, AfDB (nonregional member), APEC, Arctic Council (observer), ARF, ASEAN (dialogue partner), BIS, BRICS, CDB, CICA, EAS, FAO, FATF, G-20, G-24 (observer), G-5, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (national committees), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAIA (observer), MIGA, MINURSO, MINUSMA, MONUSCO, NAM (observer), NSG, OAS (observer), OPCW, Pacific Alliance (observer), PCA, PIF (partner), SAARC (observer), SCO, SICA (observer), UN, UNAMID, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNMIL, UNMISS, UNOCI, UNSC (permanent), UNTSO, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, ZC

Judicial branch

Supreme People's Court (consists of over 340 judges including the chief justice, 13 grand justices organized into a civil committee and tribunals for civil, economic, administrative, complaint and appeal, and communication and transportation cases); note - in late December 2016, the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth circuit courts of the Supreme People's Court began operation chief justice appointed by the People's National Congress (NPC); limited to 2 consecutive 5-year-terms; other justices and judges nominated by the chief justice and appointed by the Standing Committee of the NPC; term of other justices and judges determined by the NPC Higher People's Courts; Intermediate People's Courts; District and County People's Courts; Autonomous Region People's Courts; Special People's Courts for military, maritime, transportation, and forestry issues in late 2014, China unveiled planned judicial reforms

highest court(s)

Supreme People's Court (consists of over 340 judges including the chief justice, 13 grand justices organized into a civil committee and tribunals for civil, economic, administrative, complaint and appeal, and communication and transportation cases); note - in late December 2016, the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth circuit courts of the Supreme People's Court began operation

judge selection and term of office

chief justice appointed by the People's National Congress (NPC); limited to 2 consecutive 5-year-terms; other justices and judges nominated by the chief justice and appointed by the Standing Committee of the NPC; term of other justices and judges determined by the NPC

note

in late 2014, China unveiled planned judicial reforms

subordinate courts

Higher People's Courts; Intermediate People's Courts; District and County People's Courts; Autonomous Region People's Courts; Special People's Courts for military, maritime, transportation, and forestry issues

Legal system

civil law influenced by Soviet and continental European civil law systems; legislature retains power to interpret statutes; note - in early 2017, the National People's Congress took the first step in adopting a new civil code by passing the General Provisions of the Civil Law

Legislative branch

unicameral National People's Congress or Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui (2,987 seats; members indirectly elected by municipal, regional, and provincial people's congresses, and the People's Liberation Army; members serve 5-year terms); note - in practice, only members of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), its 8 allied parties, and CCP-approved independent candidates are elected last held in December 2012-February 2013 (next to be held in late 2017 to early 2018) percent of vote - NA; seats by party - 2,987

description

unicameral National People's Congress or Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui (2,987 seats; members indirectly elected by municipal, regional, and provincial people's congresses, and the People's Liberation Army; members serve 5-year terms); note - in practice, only members of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), its 8 allied parties, and CCP-approved independent candidates are elected

election results

percent of vote - NA; seats by party - 2,987

elections

last held in December 2012-February 2013 (next to be held in late 2017 to early 2018)

National anthem

"Yiyongjun Jinxingqu" (The March of the Volunteers) TIAN Han/NIE Er adopted 1949; the anthem, though banned during the Cultural Revolution, is more commonly known as "Zhongguo Guoge" (Chinese National Song); it was originally the theme song to the 1935 Chinese movie, "Sons and Daughters in a Time of Storm"

lyrics/music

TIAN Han/NIE Er

name

"Yiyongjun Jinxingqu" (The March of the Volunteers)

note

adopted 1949; the anthem, though banned during the Cultural Revolution, is more commonly known as "Zhongguo Guoge" (Chinese National Song); it was originally the theme song to the 1935 Chinese movie, "Sons and Daughters in a Time of Storm"

National holiday

National Day (anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China), 1 October (1949)

National symbol(s)

dragon, giant panda; national colors: red, yellow

dragon, giant panda; national colors

red, yellow

Political parties and leaders

Chinese Communist Party or CCP [XI Jinping] China has 8 nominally independent small parties ultimately controlled by the CCP

note

China has 8 nominally independent small parties ultimately controlled by the CCP

Political pressure groups and leaders

no substantial political opposition groups exist

Suffrage

18 years of age; universal

Agriculture - products

world leader in gross value of agricultural output; rice, wheat, potatoes, corn, tobacco, peanuts, tea, apples, cotton, pork, mutton, eggs; fish, shrimp

Budget

$2.402 trillion $2.826 trillion (2016 est.)

expenditures

$2.826 trillion (2016 est.)

revenues

$2.402 trillion

Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-)

-3.8% of GDP (2016 est.)

Central bank discount rate

2.25% (31 December 2016 est.) 2.25% (31 December 2015 est.)

Commercial bank prime lending rate

4.35% (31 December 2016 est.) 4.35% (31 December 2015 est.)

Current account balance

$196.4 billion (2016 est.) $304.2 billion (2015 est.)

Debt - external

$1.467 trillion (31 December 2016 est.) $1.418 trillion (31 December 2015 est.)

Distribution of family income - Gini index

46.5 (2016 est.) 46.2 (2015 est.)

Economy - overview

Since the late 1970s, China has moved from a closed, centrally planned system to a more market-oriented one that plays a major global role. China has implemented reforms in a gradualist fashion, resulting in efficiency gains that have contributed to a more than tenfold increase in GDP since 1978. Reforms began with the phaseout of collectivized agriculture, and expanded to include the gradual liberalization of prices, fiscal decentralization, increased autonomy for state enterprises, growth of the private sector, development of stock markets and a modern banking system, and opening to foreign trade and investment. China continues to pursue an industrial policy, state-support of key sectors, and a restrictive investment regime. Measured on a purchasing power parity (PPP) basis that adjusts for price differences, China in 2016 stood as the largest economy in the world, surpassing the US in 2014 for the first time in modern history. China became the world's largest exporter in 2010, and the largest trading nation in 2013. Still, China's per capita income is below the world average. After keeping its currency tightly linked to the US dollar for years, China in July 2005 moved to an exchange rate system that references a basket of currencies. From mid-2005 to late 2008, the renminbi appreciated more than 20% against the US dollar, but the exchange rate remained virtually pegged to the dollar from the onset of the global financial crisis until June 2010, when Beijing allowed resumption of a gradual liberalization. In 2015, the People’s Bank of China announced it would continue to carefully push for full convertibility of the renminbi (RMB) after the currency was accepted as part of the IMF’s special drawing rights basket. After engaging in one-way, large-scale intervention to resist appreciation of the RMB for a decade, China’s 2016 intervention in foreign exchange markets has sought to prevent a rapid RMB depreciation that would have negative consequences for the United States, China, and the global economy. China’s economic growth has slowed since 2011. The Chinese Government faces numerous economic challenges including: (a) reducing its high domestic savings rate and correspondingly low domestic household consumption; (b) servicing its high corporate debt burdens to maintain financial stability; (c) facilitating higher-wage job opportunities for the aspiring middle class, including rural migrants and college graduates, while maintaining competitiveness; (d) dampening speculative investment in the real estate sector; (e) reducing industrial overcapacity; and (f) raising productivity growth rates through the more efficient allocation of capital. Economic development has progressed further in coastal provinces than in the interior, and by 2016 more than 169.3 million migrant workers and their dependents had relocated to urban areas to find work. One consequence of China’s population control policy known as the “one-child policy” - which was relaxed in 2016 to permit all families to have two children - is that China is now one of the most rapidly aging countries in the world. Deterioration in the environment - notably air pollution, soil erosion, and the steady fall of the water table, especially in the North - is another long-term problem. China continues to lose arable land because of erosion and urbanization. The Chinese government is seeking to add energy production capacity from sources other than coal and oil, focusing on natural gas, nuclear, and clean energy development. In 2016, China ratified the Paris Agreement, a multilateral agreement to combat climate change, and committed to peak its carbon dioxide emissions between 2025 and 2030. The government's 13th Five-Year Plan, unveiled in March 2016, emphasizes the need to increase innovation and boost domestic consumption to make the economy less dependent on government investment, exports, and heavy industry. However, China has made only marginal progress toward these rebalancing goals. Under President XI Jinping, Beijing has signaled its understanding that China's long-term economic health depends on giving the market a more decisive role in allocating resources, but has moved slowly on market-oriented reforms because of potential negative consequences for stability and short-term economic growth. He has also increased state-control over key sectors and Party control over state-owned enterprises. Chinese leaders in 2010 pledged to double China’s GDP by 2020, and the 13th Five Year Plan includes annual economic growth targets of at least 6.5% through 2020 to achieve that goal. In recent years, China has renewed its support for state-owned enterprises in sectors considered important to "economic security," explicitly looking to foster globally competitive industries. Chinese leaders also have undermined some market-oriented reforms by reaffirming the “dominant” role of the state in the economy, a stance that threatens to discourage private initiative and make the economy less efficient over time.

China&rsquo;s economic growth has slowed since 2011. The Chinese Government faces numerous economic challenges including

(a) reducing its high domestic savings rate and correspondingly low domestic household consumption; (b) servicing its high corporate debt burdens to maintain financial stability; (c) facilitating higher-wage job opportunities for the aspiring middle class, including rural migrants and college graduates, while maintaining competitiveness; (d) dampening speculative investment in the real estate sector; (e) reducing industrial overcapacity; and (f) raising productivity growth rates through the more efficient allocation of capital. Economic development has progressed further in coastal provinces than in the interior, and by 2016 more than 169.3 million migrant workers and their dependents had relocated to urban areas to find work. One consequence of China’s population control policy known as the “one-child policy” - which was relaxed in 2016 to permit all families to have two children - is that China is now one of the most rapidly aging countries in the world. Deterioration in the environment - notably air pollution, soil erosion, and the steady fall of the water table, especially in the North - is another long-term problem. China continues to lose arable land because of erosion and urbanization. The Chinese government is seeking to add energy production capacity from sources other than coal and oil, focusing on natural gas, nuclear, and clean energy development. In 2016, China ratified the Paris Agreement, a multilateral agreement to combat climate change, and committed to peak its carbon dioxide emissions between 2025 and 2030.

Exchange rates

Renminbi yuan (RMB) per US dollar - 6.6446 (2016 est.) 6.6446 (2015 est.) 6.2275 (2014 est.) 6.1958 (2013 est.) 6.3123 (2012 est.)

Exports

$1.99 trillion (2016 est.) $2.143 trillion (2015 est.)

Exports - commodities

electrical and other machinery, including computers and telecommunications equipment, apparel, furniture, textiles

Exports - partners

US 18.2%, Hong Kong 13.8%, Japan 6.1%, South Korea 4.5% (2016)

Fiscal year

calendar year

GDP - composition, by end use

39.2% 14.4% 42.7% 1.4% 19.5% -17.3% (2016 est.)

exports of goods and services

19.5%

government consumption

14.4%

household consumption

39.2%

imports of goods and services

-17.3% (2016 est.)

investment in fixed capital

42.7%

investment in inventories

1.4%

GDP - composition, by sector of origin

8.6% 39.8% 51.6% (2016 est.)

agriculture

8.6%

industry

39.8%

services

51.6%

GDP - per capita (PPP)

$15,400 (2016 est.) $14,500 (2015 est.) $13,600 (2014 est.) data are in 2016 dollars

note

data are in 2016 dollars

GDP - real growth rate

6.7% (2016 est.) 6.9% (2015 est.) 7.3% (2014 est.)

GDP (official exchange rate)

$11.23 trillion (2016 est.) because China's exchange rate is determined by fiat rather than by market forces, the official exchange rate measure of GDP is not an accurate measure of China's output; GDP at the official exchange rate substantially understates the actual level of China's output vis-a-vis the rest of the world; in China's situation, GDP at purchasing power parity provides the best measure for comparing output across countries

note

because China's exchange rate is determined by fiat rather than by market forces, the official exchange rate measure of GDP is not an accurate measure of China's output; GDP at the official exchange rate substantially understates the actual level of China's output vis-a-vis the rest of the world; in China's situation, GDP at purchasing power parity provides the best measure for comparing output across countries

GDP (purchasing power parity)

$21.29 trillion (2016 est.) $19.7 trillion (2015 est.) $18.23 trillion (2014 est.) data are in 2016 dollars

note

data are in 2016 dollars

Gross national saving

45.9% of GDP (2016 est.) 47.5% of GDP (2015 est.) 49% of GDP (2014 est.)

Household income or consumption by percentage share

2.1% 31.4% data are for urban households only (2012)

highest 10%

31.4%

lowest 10%

2.1%

note

data are for urban households only (2012)

Imports

$1.495 trillion (2016 est.) $1.567 trillion (2015 est.)

Imports - commodities

electrical and other machinery, including integrated circuits and other computer components, oil and mineral fuels; optical and medical equipment, metal ores, motor vehicles; soybeans

Imports - partners

South Korea 10%, Japan 9.2%, US 8.5%, Germany 5.4%, Australia 4.4% (2016)

Industrial production growth rate

6.1% (2016 est.)

Industries

world leader in gross value of industrial output; mining and ore processing, iron, steel, aluminum, and other metals, coal; machine building; armaments; textiles and apparel; petroleum; cement; chemicals; fertilizer; consumer products (including footwear, toys, and electronics); food processing; transportation equipment, including automobiles, railcars and locomotives, ships, aircraft; telecommunications equipment, commercial space launch vehicles, satellites

Inflation rate (consumer prices)

2% (2016 est.) 1.5% (2015 est.)

Labor force

807.1 million by the end of 2012, China's population at working age (15-64 years) was 1.004 billion (2016 est.)

note

by the end of 2012, China's population at working age (15-64 years) was 1.004 billion (2016 est.)

Labor force - by occupation

28.3% 29.3% 42.4% (2015 est.)

agriculture

28.3%

industry

29.3%

services

42.4%

Market value of publicly traded shares

$7.321 trillion (31 December 2016 est.) $8.188 trillion (31 December 2015 est.) $6.005 trillion (31 December 2014 est.)

Population below poverty line

3.3% in 2011, China set a new poverty line at RMB 2300 (approximately US $400) (2016 est.)

note

in 2011, China set a new poverty line at RMB 2300 (approximately US $400)

Public debt

16.1% of GDP (2016 est.) 15.2% of GDP (2015 est.) official data; data cover both central government debt and local government debt, including debt officially recognized by China's National Audit Office report in 2011; data exclude policy bank bonds, Ministry of Railway debt, and China Asset Management Company debt

note

official data; data cover both central government debt and local government debt, including debt officially recognized by China's National Audit Office report in 2011; data exclude policy bank bonds, Ministry of Railway debt, and China Asset Management Company debt

Reserves of foreign exchange and gold

$3.098 trillion (31 December 2016 est.) $3.406 trillion (31 December 2015 est.)

Stock of broad money

$22.3 trillion (31 December 2016 est.) $21.45 trillion (31 December 2015 est.)

Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad

$1.227 trillion (31 December 2016 est.) $1.01 trillion (31 December 2015 est.)

Stock of direct foreign investment - at home

$1.391 trillion (31 December 2016 est.) $1.221 trillion (31 December 2015 est.)

Stock of domestic credit

$23.02 trillion (31 December 2016 est.) $20.53 trillion (31 December 2015 est.)

Stock of narrow money

$7.001 trillion (31 December 2016 est.) $6.176 trillion (31 December 2015 est.)

Taxes and other revenues

21.4% of GDP (2016 est.)

Unemployment rate

4% (2016 est.) 4% (2015 est.) data are for registered urban unemployment, which excludes private enterprises and migrants

note

data are for registered urban unemployment, which excludes private enterprises and migrants

Carbon dioxide emissions from consumption of energy

9.135 billion Mt (2014 est.)

Crude oil - exports

32,000 bbl/day (2014 est.)

Crude oil - imports

6.167 million bbl/day (2014 est.)

Crude oil - production

3.981 million bbl/day (2016 est.)

Crude oil - proved reserves

25.62 billion bbl (1 January 2017 es)

Electricity - consumption

5.92 trillion kWh (2016 est.)

Electricity - exports

18.91 billion kWh (2016 est.)

Electricity - from fossil fuels

64% of total installed capacity (2016 est.)

Electricity - from hydroelectric plants

20.2% of total installed capacity (2016 est.)

Electricity - from nuclear fuels

2% of total installed capacity (2016 est.)

Electricity - from other renewable sources

13.7% of total installed capacity (2016 est.)

Electricity - imports

6.185 billion kWh (2016 est.)

Electricity - installed generating capacity

1.646 billion kW (2016 est.)

Electricity - production

6.142 trillion kWh (2016 est.)

Electricity access

1,200,000 99.9% 100% 99.8% (2016)

electrification - rural areas

99.8% (2016)

electrification - total population

99.9%

electrification - urban areas

100%

population without electricity

1,200,000

Natural gas - consumption

186.2 billion cu m (2015 est.)

Natural gas - exports

3.243 billion cu m (2015 est.)

Natural gas - imports

75.1 billion cu m (2016 est.)

Natural gas - production

138.4 billion cu m (2016 est.)

Natural gas - proved reserves

5.194 trillion cu m (1 January 2017 es)

Refined petroleum products - consumption

11.75 million bbl/day (2015 est.)

Refined petroleum products - exports

709,900 bbl/day (2014 est.)

Refined petroleum products - imports

971,900 bbl/day (2014 est.)

Refined petroleum products - production

10.85 million bbl/day (2014 est.)

Broadcast media

all broadcast media are owned by, or affiliated with, the Communist Party of China or a government agency; no privately owned TV or radio stations; state-run Chinese Central TV, provincial, and municipal stations offer more than 2,000 channels; the Central Propaganda Department lists subjects that are off limits to domestic broadcast media with the government maintaining authority to approve all programming; foreign-made TV programs must be approved prior to broadcast; increasingly, Chinese turn to online television to access Chinese and international films and television shows (2017)

Internet country code

.cn

Internet users

730,723,960 53.2% (July 2016 est.)

percent of population

53.2% (July 2016 est.)

total

730,723,960

Telephone system

domestic and international services are available for private use; unevenly distributed domestic system serves principal cities, industrial centers, and many towns; China continues to develop its telecommunications infrastructure; China in the summer of 2008 began a major restructuring of its telecommunications industry, resulting in the consolidation of its six telecom service operators to three, China Telecom, China Mobile, and China Unicom, each providing both fixed-line and mobile services (2016) interprovincial fiber-optic trunk lines and cellular telephone systems have been installed; mobile-cellular subscribership is increasing rapidly; the number of Internet users now over 50% of the population; a domestic satellite system with several earth stations is in place (2016) country code - 86; a number of submarine cables provide connectivity to Asia, the Middle East, Europe, and the US; satellite earth stations - 7 (5 Intelsat - 4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean; 1 Intersputnik - Indian Ocean region; and 1 Inmarsat - Pacific and Indian Ocean regions) (2012)

domestic

interprovincial fiber-optic trunk lines and cellular telephone systems have been installed; mobile-cellular subscribership is increasing rapidly; the number of Internet users now over 50% of the population; a domestic satellite system with several earth stations is in place (2016)

general assessment

domestic and international services are available for private use; unevenly distributed domestic system serves principal cities, industrial centers, and many towns; China continues to develop its telecommunications infrastructure; China in the summer of 2008 began a major restructuring of its telecommunications industry, resulting in the consolidation of its six telecom service operators to three, China Telecom, China Mobile, and China Unicom, each providing both fixed-line and mobile services (2016)

international

country code - 86; a number of submarine cables provide connectivity to Asia, the Middle East, Europe, and the US; satellite earth stations - 7 (5 Intelsat - 4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean; 1 Intersputnik - Indian Ocean region; and 1 Inmarsat - Pacific and Indian Ocean regions) (2012)

Telephones - fixed lines

206.624 million 15 (July 2016 est.)

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants

15 (July 2016 est.)

total subscriptions

206.624 million

Telephones - mobile cellular

1,364.934 million 99 (July 2016 est.)

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants

99 (July 2016 est.)

total

1,364.934 million

Airports

507 (2013)

Airports - with paved runways

86 (2017)

1,524 to 2,437 m

123

2,438 to 3,047 m

158

914 to 1,523 m

25

over 3,047 m

71

total

463

under 914 m

86 (2017)

Airports - with unpaved runways

18 (2013)

1,524 to 2,437 m

6

2,438 to 3,047 m

7

914 to 1,523 m

9

over 3,047 m

4

total

44

under 914 m

18 (2013)

Civil aircraft registration country code prefix

B (2016)

Heliports

47 (2013)

Merchant marine

4,287 bulk carrier 1,069, container ship 198, general cargo 697, oil tanker 480, other 1,843, (2017)

by type

bulk carrier 1,069, container ship 198, general cargo 697, oil tanker 480, other 1,843, (2017)

total

4,287

National air transport system

2,890 436,183,969 19.806 billion mt-km (2015)

annual freight traffic on registered air carriers

19.806 billion mt-km (2015)

annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers

436,183,969

inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers

2,890

number of registered air carriers

56

Pipelines

gas 70,000 km; crude oil 22,900 km; refined petroleum products 25,500 km; water 710,206 km (2015)

Ports and terminals

Dalian, Ningbo, Qingdao, Qinhuangdao, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Tianjin Guangzhou (Pearl) Dalian (9,591,000), Guangzhou (17,097,000), Ningbo (20,636,000), Qingdao (17,323,000), Shanghai (36,516,000), Shenzhen (24,142,000), Tianjin (13,881,000)(2015) Fujian, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Shandong, Shanghai, Tangshan, Zhejiang

container port(s) (TEUs)

Dalian (9,591,000), Guangzhou (17,097,000), Ningbo (20,636,000), Qingdao (17,323,000), Shanghai (36,516,000), Shenzhen (24,142,000), Tianjin (13,881,000)(2015)

LNG terminal(s) (import)

Fujian, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Shandong, Shanghai, Tangshan, Zhejiang

major seaport(s)

Dalian, Ningbo, Qingdao, Qinhuangdao, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Tianjin

river port(s)

Guangzhou (Pearl)

Railways

124,000 km 124,000 km 1.435-m gauge (80,000 km electrified); 102,000 traditional, 22,000 high-speed (2017)

standard gauge

124,000 km 1.435-m gauge (80,000 km electrified); 102,000 traditional, 22,000 high-speed (2017)

total

124,000 km

Roadways

4,577,300 km 4,046,300 km (includes 123,500 km of expressways) 531,000 km (2015)

paved

4,046,300 km (includes 123,500 km of expressways)

total

4,577,300 km

unpaved

531,000 km (2015)

Transportation - note

seven of the world’s ten largest container ports are in China

Waterways

110,000 km (navigable waterways) (2011)

Military branches

People's Liberation Army (PLA): Army, Navy (PLAN, includes marines and naval aviation), Air Force (Zhongguo Renmin Jiefangjun Kongjun, PLAAF, includes airborne forces), Rocket Force (strategic missile force), and Strategic Support Force (space and cyber forces); People's Armed Police (Renmin Wuzhuang Jingcha Budui, PAP); PLA Reserve Force (2016)

People's Liberation Army (PLA)

Army, Navy (PLAN, includes marines and naval aviation), Air Force (Zhongguo Renmin Jiefangjun Kongjun, PLAAF, includes airborne forces), Rocket Force (strategic missile force), and Strategic Support Force (space and cyber forces); People's Armed Police (Renmin Wuzhuang Jingcha Budui, PAP); PLA Reserve Force (2016)

Military expenditures

1.9% of GDP (2016) 1.95% of GDP (2015) 1.9% of GDP (2014) 1.85% of GDP (2013) 1.84% of GDP (2012)

Military service age and obligation

18-24 years of age for selective compulsory military service, with a 2-year service obligation; no minimum age for voluntary service (all officers are volunteers); 18-19 years of age for women high school graduates who meet requirements for specific military jobs; a recent military decision allows women in combat roles; the first class of women warship commanders was in 2011 (2012)

Disputes - international

continuing talks and confidence-building measures work toward reducing tensions over Kashmir that nonetheless remains militarized with portions under the de facto administration of China (Aksai Chin), India (Jammu and Kashmir), and Pakistan (Azad Kashmir and Northern Areas); India does not recognize Pakistan's ceding historic Kashmir lands to China in 1964; China and India continue their security and foreign policy dialogue started in 2005 related to the dispute over most of their rugged, militarized boundary, regional nuclear proliferation, and other matters; China claims most of India's Arunachal Pradesh to the base of the Himalayas; lacking any treaty describing the boundary, Bhutan and China continue negotiations to establish a common boundary alignment to resolve territorial disputes arising from substantial cartographic discrepancies, the most contentious of which lie in Bhutan's west along China's Chumbi salient; Burmese forces attempting to dig in to the largely autonomous Shan State to rout local militias tied to the drug trade, prompts local residents to periodically flee into neighboring Yunnan Province in China; Chinese maps show an international boundary symbol off the coasts of the littoral states of the South China Seas, where China has interrupted Vietnamese hydrocarbon exploration; China asserts sovereignty over Scarborough Reef along with the Philippines and Taiwan, and over the Spratly Islands together with Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Brunei; the 2002 Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea eased tensions in the Spratlys but is not the legally binding code of conduct sought by some parties; Vietnam and China continue to expand construction of facilities in the Spratlys and in March 2005, the national oil companies of China, the Philippines, and Vietnam signed a joint accord on marine seismic activities in the Spratly Islands; China occupies some of the Paracel Islands also claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; the Japanese-administered Senkaku Islands are also claimed by China and Taiwan; certain islands in the Yalu and Tumen Rivers are in dispute with North Korea; North Korea and China seek to stem illegal migration to China by North Koreans, fleeing privations and oppression, by building a fence along portions of the border and imprisoning North Koreans deported by China; China and Russia have demarcated the once disputed islands at the Amur and Ussuri confluence and in the Argun River in accordance with their 2004 Agreement; China and Tajikistan have begun demarcating the revised boundary agreed to in the delimitation of 2002; the decade-long demarcation of the China-Vietnam land boundary was completed in 2009; citing environmental, cultural, and social concerns, China has reconsidered construction of 13 dams on the Salween River, but energy-starved Burma, with backing from Thailand, remains intent on building five hydro-electric dams downstream despite regional and international protests Chinese and Hong Kong authorities met in March 2008 to resolve ownership and use of lands recovered in Shenzhen River channelization, including 96-hectare Lok Ma Chau Loop

Illicit drugs

major transshipment point for heroin produced in the Golden Triangle region of Southeast Asia; growing domestic consumption of synthetic drugs, and heroin from Southeast and Southwest Asia; source country for methamphetamine and heroin chemical precursors, despite new regulations on its large chemical industry; more people believed to be convicted and executed for drug offences than anywhere else in the world, according to NGOs

Refugees and internally displaced persons

317,098 (Vietnam); undetermined (North Korea) (2016) undetermined (2014)

IDPs

undetermined (2014)

refugees (country of origin)

317,098 (Vietnam); undetermined (North Korea) (2016)

Trafficking in persons

China is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children subjected to sex trafficking and forced labor; Chinese adults and children are forced into prostitution and various forms of forced labor, including begging and working in brick kilns, coal mines, and factories; women and children are recruited from rural areas and taken to urban centers for sexual exploitation, often lured by criminal syndicates or gangs with fraudulent job offers; state-sponsored forced labor, where detainees work for up to four years often with no remuneration, continues to be a serious concern; Chinese men, women, and children also may be subjected to conditions of sex trafficking and forced labor worldwide, particularly in overseas Chinese communities; women and children are trafficked to China from neighboring countries, as well as Africa and the Americas, for forced labor and prostitution Tier 2 Watch List - China does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking; however, it is making significant efforts to do so; official data for 2014 states that 194 alleged traffickers were arrested and at least 35 were convicted, but the government’s conflation of human trafficking with other crimes makes it difficult to assess law enforcement efforts to investigate and to prosecute trafficking offenses according to international law; despite reports of complicity, no government officials were investigated, prosecuted, or convicted for their roles in trafficking offenses; authorities did not adequately protect victims and did not provide the data needed to ascertain the number of victims identified or assisted or the services provided; the National People’s Congress ratified a decision to abolish “reform through labor” in 2013, but some continued to operate as state-sponsored drug detention or “custody and education” centers that force inmates to perform manual labor; some North Korean refugees continued to be forcibly repatriated as illegal economic migrants, despite reports that some were trafficking victims (2015)

current situation

China is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children subjected to sex trafficking and forced labor; Chinese adults and children are forced into prostitution and various forms of forced labor, including begging and working in brick kilns, coal mines, and factories; women and children are recruited from rural areas and taken to urban centers for sexual exploitation, often lured by criminal syndicates or gangs with fraudulent job offers; state-sponsored forced labor, where detainees work for up to four years often with no remuneration, continues to be a serious concern; Chinese men, women, and children also may be subjected to conditions of sex trafficking and forced labor worldwide, particularly in overseas Chinese communities; women and children are trafficked to China from neighboring countries, as well as Africa and the Americas, for forced labor and prostitution

tier rating

Tier 2 Watch List - China does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking; however, it is making significant efforts to do so; official data for 2014 states that 194 alleged traffickers were arrested and at least 35 were convicted, but the government’s conflation of human trafficking with other crimes makes it difficult to assess law enforcement efforts to investigate and to prosecute trafficking offenses according to international law; despite reports of complicity, no government officials were investigated, prosecuted, or convicted for their roles in trafficking offenses; authorities did not adequately protect victims and did not provide the data needed to ascertain the number of victims identified or assisted or the services provided; the National People’s Congress ratified a decision to abolish “reform through labor” in 2013, but some continued to operate as state-sponsored drug detention or “custody and education” centers that force inmates to perform manual labor; some North Korean refugees continued to be forcibly repatriated as illegal economic migrants, despite reports that some were trafficking victims (2015)